Critical Transportation Issues and Opportunities:

The Case for High Speed Ground Transportation Systems

By Gregory Markham, P.E.
Mechanical Engineer.    Last Update: March 17, 1999.

    What's New !!

MAGLEV

• The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory has published their Technical Assessment of Maglev System Concepts. This comprehensive and very well-written report summarizes the findings of the government maglev assessment team assembled during the National Maglev Initiative in the early 1990's.

• Dr. Joseph Schetz of the Virginia Tech Multidisciplinary Analysis and Design Center for Advanced Vehicles has written about The Aerodynamic Design of High Speed Maglev Vehicles.

• NASA Marshall Space Flight Center is continuing its research and development work on a Ground Based Launch Assist Magnetic Lifter to reduce the cost of putting spacecraft payloads into Earth orbit. A research team at Sussex University in Britain is a major partner in the development effort. New details, including photos and video clips, are provided in the September 25, 1998 NASA Marshall news release 98-190 titled Levitated Locomotion to Space.

CONTENTS

Page 1
1.0 The Status Quo
2.0 Problems with the Status Quo Approach
     2.1 The Threat to U.S. Energy Security
     2.2 Reducing Infrastructure Demand and Improving Long-Term Planning
     2.3 Focused Investment instead of Reckless Consumption
     2.4 The Auto Industry's "Answer"
3.0 One Solution for Intercity Travel - Maglev
     3.1Some of the Work Performed during the National Maglev Initiative
     3.2 Maglev Work at Holloman Air Force Base
     3.3 Implementing Maglev - Safety & Other Key Issues
     3.4 TEA 21 - A New Beginning
4.0 References
      4.1 Cited References
      4.2 General References

Page 2
5.0 Important Sites on the World Wide Web
6.0 Organizations Addressing Important Public Transportation Issues
7.0 The Benefits of Public Transportation
8.0 Pertinent Newspaper Articles

1.0 The Status Quo

In his book Black Lies, White Lies, Tony Brown says that "...most Americans are unmindful of history, just as they are unmindful of the future. Only the moment counts."¹ That is indeed the case, and our society's lack of long-term vision, especially in regards to transportation issues, has ominous consequences for ourselves, our nation, and future generations.

One clear example of the nation's status quo transportation policy at work was gleaned from a front page article in the Cleveland Plain Dealer newspaper. The article, titled "Massive Rebuilding Planned for I-71: Seven-year Project Will Tear Up Road All the Way to Columbus"² stated that Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT) officials plan to spend more than $ 300 million over the next seven years to rebuild heavily traveled Interstate 71 between Cleveland and Columbus. This project will be the first in a Multi-Lane ODOT Reconstruction program to rebuild all of Ohio's interstates, since "Ohio's interstate highway pavements are rapidly deteriorating from heavier-than-expected usage" The article also mentions that "due largely to increasing traffic, the (Ohio) interstates have exceeded in the last 11.5 years the number of vehicles they were designed to carry over 20 years" and that "the average freeway has experienced six times the load for which it was designed".

2.0 Problems with the Status Quo Approach

The question that should be asked of ODOT is: What did you expect ? There are only two available transport modes for a person wishing to travel from Cleveland to Columbus, or vice versa, motor vehicle (automobile or bus) or airplane. As I understand it, the last rail connection between the two cities was abandoned (and probably dismantled) several decades ago. Plus, air travel between two cities that are only 150 miles apart can be more of a cost and time hassle than it's worth. With that situation, did the ODOT planners really expect their roads to last twenty years? Was that a logical assumption when the state has provided people no viable alternative to the automobile?

The Executive Summary of the Ohio Department of Transportation's Interstate-71 Pavement Reconstruction Program is now available online.

Here, I'll present my three-tiered argument against the foolishness of the status quo. These three pillars are:
1. America's Energy Security - my succinct summary of important articles published in the Harvard International Review and The Futurist,
2. The Need to Downsize Infrastructure (originally articulated by Clark Wieman of Cooper Union in Technology Review magazine), and
3. The need for future-oriented investment in America's infrastructure to enhance the quality of life for citizens (drawing on the work of Lester Thurow and others).

2.1 The Threat to U.S. Energy Security

In the summer of 1997, the Harvard International Review dedicated a significant portion of Vol. XIX, No. 3 to the issue of International Energy Security. One article by David L. Greene, titled "Economic Scarcity: Forget Geology, Beware Monopoly", details how "the economy's susceptibility to sudden, massive economic losses" makes "oil a serious energy security problem for the United States". Greene writes, "The question now does not- and never did - concern the physical scarcity of oil. It is the economic scarcity of oil that matters to our economic welfare and threatens our energy security. The problem is that the world's conventional oil reserves are concentrated in relatively few countries who are able to manipulate the economic scarcity of oil to their advantage and to the disadvantage of other countries and who have done so in the past." He continues, stating that "the greater concentration of oil use in the transportation sector may have decreased the price elasticity of demand, which would strengthen OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) market power." The article is long and in-depth, but it concludes with the assertion that energy technology is the key to "immunizing oil-dependent economies against price disruptions...Defending the economy of an oil-consuming country (i.e. the U.S.) against the market scarcity of oil will require the development of more energy-efficient oil-using technology (mostly for transportation), the use of more efficient alternatives to petroleum, and cheaper and better technologies for finding and producing petroleum."

2.2 Reducing Infrastructure Demand and Improving Long-Term Planning

Clark Wieman is the Research Director of the Infrastructure Institute at Cooper Union in New York City. He was interviewed on Talk of the Nation Science Friday's radio broadcast on Nov. 22, 1996

2.3 Focused Investment instead of Reckless Consumption

In the preface to the book Reclaiming Prosperity, MIT economist Lester Thurow delivers a blueprint for reclaiming a healthy U.S. economy. Thurow feels that 21st century government should focus on infrastructure investment, investment in human skills, and investment in generating the knowledge that creates new industries. The issue is not government, big or small, but investment versus consumption. America needs to become a much higher investment society in both its public and private sectors.

2.4 The Auto Industry's "Answer"

Scientific American's Sept 1997 issue had a very concise article, called Not So Fast, which debunks the myths around the auto industry's current mantra Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS) or Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). In my opinion, the current preponderance of money for Intelligent Vehicle research is a travesty. IVHS can never and will never solve the fundamental gaps in urban transportation in the United States, as articulated by Dr. J.A. Kieffer. By monopolizing such a large segment of the current transportation research budget, Intelligent Vehicle Highway folks are preventing others from investigating "new, low cost forms of non-road-bound public transit as a means of reducing pollution." Indeed, as Dr. Kieffer notes, "it seems to have escaped planners of these ventures that, on getting off automated roads, drivers still have to negotiate congested roads and find parking spaces. These schemes, while likely to cost a lot of money, can do little to ease road congestion in medium/lower density areas or reduce parking needs, and they offer nothing to provide better mobility for the growing number of older persons and other people who do not or cannot use autos."

3.0 One Solution for Intercity Travel - Maglev

I believe strongly that high speed rail and maglev (magnetic levitation transportation) technologies should be implemented as a complement to the nation's existing air and highway systems. Maglev transportation systems can become a new, modern, highly-efficient means of passenger (and freight) transport, and in that capacity maglev can increase employee-employer accessibility, cause the appreciation of land values, ease airport and roadway congestion and generally, act as a catalyst for economic growth.

Maglev transportation technology is best suited for intercity travel at distances from 100 to 600 miles. Magnetic levitation vehicles could travel at speeds near 250-300 mph, and would permit a series of dramatic logistic breakthroughs to be achieved. As Dr. Gordon Danby and Dr. James Powell wrote in the Winter 1996 issue of Speedlines magazine, maglev "is the only technology that combines the speed and smoothness of flight with the comfort, safety, and reliability of the rail mode; the ability to operate passenger and freight vehicles without sacrificing the performance quality of either type of business; and the volume-driven economies of long-train operation with the customized, single-vehicle capability of the private auto and motor truck". ⁶

Cost is the major obstacle to implementation. Magnetically levitated transportation systems require large capital expenditures, in part because the technology is new and still being developed. In addition to cost, maglev faces institutional obstacles, according to the director of the Center for Transportation Research at Argonne National Laboratory, Mr. Larry R. Johnson. "For example, there are major government trust programs for highways and airports, and these tend to perpetuate those types of technology to the exclusion of new technology."⁴

Maglev has been studied in the U.S., but for civilian application, it has been an uphill fight to move it beyond that stage. The pioneering work on maglev was done in the U.S. , but almost all domestic work stopped in 1975 when the federal government eliminated funding. One excellent document explaining some of the reasons for the lack of high speed ground alternatives for passengers in the United States is High Speed Rail in the United States: Why Isn't There More? However, this situation may change in 1999 thanks to the passage of the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (or TEA-21) in June 1998. One of the major components of TEA-21 is a MAGLEV technology deployment program.

3.1 Some of the Work Performed during the National Maglev Initiative

The National Maglev Initiative (NMI) was a public and private sector effort to assess the potential of maglev transportation in the U.S. Launched in 1990, the initiative was headed by the Federal Railroad Administration, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the Department of Energy. The NMI included a review of the safety, engineering, economic, and environmental aspects of maglev systems. Projects under the NMI analyzed maglev subsystems and components to improve performance, reduce costs, and lower risks. In addition, system concept development projects evaluated new approaches for maglev that could be used as the basis for an advanced maglev system.^5*

Below, I have tabulated some specifics on the engineering work that was performed as part of the National Maglev Initiative. In my opinion, the definitive document on the engineering assessments made by the government during the National Maglev Initiative is the report Technical Assessment of Maglev System Concepts: Final Report by the Government Maglev System Assessment Team, Special Report 98-12, which was published in October 1998 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory.

Magnetic Levitation Transportation Systems Technology Assessment
National Maglev Initiative - 1991 Boston, Massachusetts Meeting

Task Title	Organization, Principal Investigator	Funding (*rounded)
System Economic Considerations
Guideway Structural Design and Power for Propulsion/Power/Braking in Relation to the Guideway SCOPE: Evaluate cost, performance characteristics, and fabrication techniques for Maglev power, propulsion, and braking designs and their effects in relation to the guideway. Evaluate several guideway designs for relationships among guideway construction costs, fabrication techniques, and support systems. Develop the construction cost estimate for a complete Maglev guideway system capable of speeds up to 300 mph.	Babcock & Wilcox Houston, TX Mr. Scott Key	$ 420K
Maglev Guideway Route Alignment and Right-of-Way SCOPE: Perform a cost/benefit analysis of operational considerations as they relate to route alignment and siting considerations for twenty-three city pairs.	Martin Marietta (1991) Now: Lockheed Martin Washington, D.C. Mr. Steve Carlton	$ 204K
Vehicle Technology
Comparison of Major Parameters in Electrodynamic and Electromagnetic Levitation Transport Systems SCOPE: Generate design parameters for electrodynamic and electromagnetic systems. Results will contribute to a first order evaluation of viable magnetic levitation systems.	Charles Stark Draper Laboratories Cambridge, MA Mr. Mark Weinberg	$ 178K
Aerodynamic Forces on Maglev Vehicles SCOPE: Evaluate aerodynamic forces to determine the relationship between vehicle shape and drag. Determine the potential for reducing energy per passenger Quantify ride quality improvements through use of aerodynamic control devices and quantify energy penalty for use of aerodynamic control devices.	Charles Stark Draper Laboratories Cambridge, MA Dr. Timothy Barrows	$ 139K
Advanced Power Conditioning for Maglev Vehicles SCOPE: Assess power conversion units (PCU) performance characteristics attainable with today's technology, recommend optimum candidates for Maglev application, and prepare parametric design data. Perform design optimization studies and recommend design concepts.	General Atomics San Diego, CA Mr. Arne Nerem	$ 124K
Low-Cost Linear Synchronous Motor Propulsion Systems for Maglev SCOPE: Establish a database for the design specifications of a linear synchronous motor including cost, life expectancy, and parameters.	MIT Cambridge, MA Dr. Richard Thornton	$ 119K
Parametric Studies of Suspension and Propulsion Subsystems in a Maglev Transportation System SCOPE: Develop analytical models for performing a trade-off study of subsystem performance for various parameter values Apply the models to a detailed parametric study of performance of a combined suspension and propulsion subsystem, and a combined suspension subsystem using both permanent magnets and electromagnets. Develop passive or active shielding schemes to reduce level of magnetic fields in passenger and electronics compartments.	Kaman Science Corporation Santa Monica, CA Dr. F.C. Yang	$ 99K
Power Transfer to High Speed Vehicles SCOPE: Develop a two-phase plan to analytically and experimentally investigate and assess methods of reliably transferring power to/from a Maglev vehicle travelling at high and low speeds.	Foster-Miller Inc. Waltham, MA Dr. David Cope	$ 96K
Noise from High Speed Magnetically Levitated Transport Systems SCOPE: Define noise sources, develop criteria, establish design guidelines, and recommend testing facility requirements to minimize environmental noise.	Harris Miller Miller & Hanson Lexington, MA Mr. Carl Hanson	$ 92K
Superconducting Technology
Novel, Cryogen-Free, Actively Shielded Superconducting Magnets for Maglev Vehicles SCOPE: Develop the preliminary design of a superconducting magnet system for Maglev applications that increases the reliability and safety of the magnet systems by eliminating the need for liquid helium cooling and incorporating alternate shielding approaches.	General Electric Company Schenectady, NY Mr. Mark E. Vermilyea	$ 250K
Conceptual Requirements of the Superconducting Linear Induction Motor SCOPE: Evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of using Superconducting Linear Induction Motors (SLIM) to provide propulsion and, if feasible, provide a conceptual design for a SLIM and estimate cost and operating characteristics.	Intermagnetics General Guilderland, N.Y. Kris Falkowski	$ 172K
Application of Cable-In-Conduit-Conductors (CICC) to Maglev Magnet Systems SCOPE: Illustrate that superconducting cables in conduit conductors are superior to bath-cooled systems. Define the characteristics of the use of CICC type of superconductor for several generic coil geometries.	MIT Plasma Fusion Center Cambridge, MA Dr. David Montgomery	$ 142K
Guideway Technology
State-of-the-Art Assessment of Guideway Systems for Maglev Applications SCOPE: Examine the designs of existing high-speed guideway systems and proposed Maglev guideways that use structural steel and steel-reinforced structural concrete as their major load bearing members. Also investigate the impact of electromagnetic fields on the structural steel and possible interference with control systems. Examine the potential for use of innovative non-conductive materials in place of steel, and determine the limitations and costs of these materials.	West Virginia University Morgantown, WV Dr. Hota V.S. GangaRao	$ 250 K
Advanced Low-Cost High-Performance Guideway Concepts SCOPE: Identify and quantify key guideway design drivers for a U.S. system. Develop concepts for alternate guideway structural configurations and advanced fabrication methods which yield high performance and low cost, and prepare structural and cost analyses of candidate configurations.	Foster-Miller Inc. Waltham, MA Dr. Gopal Samavedam	$ 123K
Low-Cost Guideways for Maglev SCOPE: Study wide gap EDS systems with active guideway LSM propulsion and develop recommendations for a national standard guideway design Define the relationship between guideway construction costs, dimensional tolerances, span deflections, span lengths, vehicle size and weight, and guideway life expectancy Recommend cost reduction methods Evaluate cost-effectiveness of remote alignment capability (an active control system) and predict guideway dynamic behavior	MIT Cambridge, MA Dr. Richard Thornton	$ 112K
Thermal Effects and Mitigation Methods for Continuous Sheet Guideways SCOPE: Identify thermal problems in continuous sheet guideways and primary support structures which affect smooth vehicle operation and cause buckling, fracture, and fatigue failures due to thermal cycles in the service life of the structure. Select/develop necessary analytical structural tools for quantification of thermal effects in typical continuous guideway and support structures to facilitate design optimization of structures. Prepare a design database for use by future structural designers.	Foster-Miller Inc. Waltham, MA Dr. Gopal Samavedam	$ 79K
Vehicle Guideway Interaction
Influence of Guideway Flexibility on Maglev Vehicle/Guideway Dynamic Forces SCOPE: Develop realistic computer simulation models of the interaction between flexible guideways and Maglev vehicles. Evaluate the results against objective standards relating to structures, ride quality, noise and vibrations.	Parsons Brinckerhoff Herndon, VA Mr. Laurence E. Daniels	$ 190K
Adaptive Suspension using ER-Fluid Dampers SCOPE: Investigate the application of electro-rheological (ER) fluids to a secondary suspension system which may be operated in an adaptive method to relieve tolerances on guideway irregularities.	General Atomics San Diego, CA Dr. Dilip Bhadra	$ 183K
Maglev-Rail Intermodal Equipment and Suspension SCOPE: Investigate and identify the right-of-way access envelope to large cities and investigate the viability of piggybacking Maglev into urban centers via rail.	Parsons Brinckerhoff Atlanta, GA Mr. Tom Taylor	$ 174K
Maglev Program Test Plan SCOPE: Identify the test facility requirements needed for the development of Maglev program components, subsystems, and systems. Identify high risk elements which would require special testing.	1991's Martin Marietta Today's Lockheed Martin	$ 137K
Magnetic Levitation Vehicle Suspension-Guideway Interaction SCOPE: Develop a generic vehicle guideway interaction model capable of assessing guideway stiffnesses and irregularities with respect to vehicle suspension performance and ride quality.	MIT Cambridge, MA Dr. D. Wormley	$ 88 K
Operational Safety
Guideway Sensor Systems SCOPE: Investigate the use of various types of sensors for guideway diagnostics and control systems to monitor the guideway, including guideway integrity, obstacles, snow, ice, and location and speed of vehicles.	Babcock & Wilcox Lynchburg, VA Mr. John Bower	$ 182K
Maglev Guideway and Route Integrity Requirements SCOPE: Develop a three-task approach to define Maglev guideway and route integrity requirements: identify risks, assess current mitigation technology with an emphasis on active sensors, and summarize the communication and sensor architecture required.	1991's Martin Marietta Today's Lockheed Martin Washington, D.C. Mr. Steve Carlton	$ 165K
Evaluation of Concepts for Safe Speed Enforcement SCOPE: Investigate speed control systems using three-point approach: Identify speed control system needs, survey existing speed control options, and determine the applicability of those systems. The final product will define what research and development, if any, is needed for the U.S. Maglev effort.	Battelle Memorial Institute Columbus, OH Mr. Jonathan F. Luedeke	$ 66K
General Considerations
Measurements and Analysis of ELF Magnetic and Electric Fields SCOPE: Use portable multiwave instruments to measure the electromagnetic fields of several existing transportation systems. Conduct and analysis of the measured magnetic flux density data and incorporate the results into a database of EMF characteristics for future assessment.	Electric Research & Management Pittsburgh, PA Mr. Fred Dietrich	$ 382K
Verification Methodology for Fault-Tolerant, Fail-Safe Computer Control Systems SCOPE: Develop a methodology for verification of fault-tolerant and fail-safe computer control systems. (Assures proper and fault-tolerant operation of vital control system hardware and software.)	Charles Stark Draper Laboratories Cambridge, MA Dr. Jaynarayan H. Lala	$ 170K
Design Assessment of Alternate Feeder Systems for Maglev Intermodal Stations SCOPE: The Location and Design of Intermodal Stations for a HSGT System - Executive Summary Develop a computer package to design Maglev feeder routes. Assess designs of existing intermodal stations Examine ways that alternative feeder system technologies could be physically integrated into a Maglev station design Develop preliminary designs for intermodal stations.	University of Washington Seattle, WA Dr. Jerry Schneider	$ 82K

3.2 The Maglev Work at Holloman AFB

Several engineering firms are working to upgrade the existing high speed rocket sled test track at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, to a maglev system. The maglev upgrade is being developed to support Theater Missile Defense programs. The goal is to provide the Air Force with the capability of testing Theater Missile Defense (TMD) interceptors, with flight-like ground test environments, at velocities of 3 km/sec (Mach 9) or higher. The current test track does not provide a flight-like environment because of excessive vibrations, limited maximum speeds (of around 1.9 km/sec, and unreliability at very high speeds. Feasibility study in 1993 concluded that magnetically levitated hypersonic vehicles were feasible and relatively economical. Speeds of 3 km/sec would be achievable using current rocket motors, and because the levitated sleds would not touch the guideway, the induced vibration and heat problems of the current system would be eliminated.

The Holloman upgrade will use the repulsive interaction of magnets and a non-energized, coil-embedded guideway. This Electrodynamic Suspension system, with its inherently larger gap between the magnet and the guideway compared to other systems, requires a less sophisticated control system and less precise guideway alignment (i.e. lower cost)

Although the Holloman program is primarily committed to interceptor lethality testing, the installed system will eventually lend itself to a multitude of other technology developments. Some of the key technology issues facing general population maglev applications, for which the MAGLEV upgrade to the Holloman track could be used for research include:

• Aerodynamics
• Communications with the vehicle; control of the vehicle
• Magnet design, cryogenics, helium management
• High speed switching; speed, acceleration, braking
• Suspension systems
• System development and implementation costs (guideways, vehicles)
• Magnetic field levels in vehicles (passenger safety)
• Passenger ride quality
• Noise levels
• Operations and maintenance of the system
• Electromagnetic launch of highly reusable space vehicles

See the General Atomics and Boeing web pages for additional details. In addition, Teichert Inc. has developed a website that gives information on construction of concrete guideways for this maglev test track.

3.3 Implementing Maglev - Safety & Other Key Issues

Please refer to the November-December 1997 issue of Mass Transit magazine for the article "Combating Transit Terrorism" by Lenora Burke of the Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, and to the article "Crime-Fighting Sensors" that appeared in January 1998 issue of Mechanical Engineering magazine.

3.4 TEA 21 - A New Beginning

4.0 References

4.1Cited References

1. Tony Brown. Black Lies, White Lies (New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 1995), 35.

2. Joe Hallett, "Massive Rebuilding Planned for I-71," Cleveland Plain Dealer, 16 August 1997, p. 1.

3. U.S. Dept. of Transportation. Maglev Technology Assessment Symposium, National Maglev Initiative, September 26-27, 1991. Hosted by John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center.

4. WAM (ASME Winter Annual Meeting) Panelists Will Discuss How Maglev Can Relieve U.S. Travel Congestion. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) News. 1991 - prior to December 3, 1991 Meeting.

5. Urban Transportation Planning in the US - A Historical Overview/Nov 1992

6. "Why Today's Most Advanced Transportation Technology Offers a Fast Ride to Economic Growth" Speedlines magazine. Volume 13. High Speed Rail/Maglev Association, Winter 1996.

4.2 General References

Colin J. Campbell and Jean H. Laherrere, "The End of Cheap Oil", Scientific American, March 1998.

Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technologies. Energy Wise Options for State and Local Governments: High Speed Rail / Maglev

"Does America Have an Energy Strategy?", Consumer Reports, July 1996.

Barnaby J. Feder, "Building a Flying Train: U.S. Interest Grows, but Others are Ahead" The New York Times, early 1990's.

Sean Hargrave, "Spacecraft Payloads May Soar with Maglev Assistance" The Toronto Star, October 11, 1998.

Erik Kirschbaum, "Maglev Train Lifts Off at Last: Germany is Building a Fast Track between Hamburg and Berlin," The Toronto Star, August 30, 1998.

Thomas Lynch, High Speed Rail in the U.S.: Super Trains for the Millennium (Gordon & Breach, 1998).

Mass Transit Interview, "The Future of U.S. High Speed Rail," Mass Transit, (ISSN 0364-3484), January/February 1996, 8-14.

"Maglev Moves Ahead," Mechanical Engineering, March 1991, 10.

Magnetic Levitation Upgrade to the Holloman High Speed Test Track, Holloman AFB, New Mexico. Document obtained from the U.S. Federal Railroad Administration.

Francis C. Moon, Superconducting Levitation: Applications to Bearings and Magnetic Transportation (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994).

Leo O'Connor, "U.S. Developers Join Magnetic Rail Push," Mechanical Engineering, August 1993, 74-77.

Christopher O'Malley, "Rapid Rails", Popular Science, June 1992.

Andrew Pollack, "Grumman in Talks on Magnetic Trains," The New York Times, early 1990's.

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I Mech E). October 1993. Railways for Tomorrow's Passengers. Mechanical Engineering Publications Limited.

David Scott and John Free, "310 mph Flying Trains in the 90's, in the U.S.", Popular Science, May 1989.

Thomas P. Sheahen, Introduction to High-Temperature Superconductivity (New York: Plenum Press, 1994), 421-425.

Gary Stix, "Air Trains," Scientific American, August 1992, 102.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1994. National Maglev Initiative - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Final Report

U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment 1991. New Ways: Tiltrotor Aircraft and Magnetically Levitated Vehicles

Joseph Vranich, Supertrains: Solutions to America's Transportation Gridlock (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991).